INDIAN HISTORY
¨ The framework and the time of the Indian history was determined by various factors including the topography, climate and the rainfall.
¨ The history of Indian stone cultures goes back to nearly 2 million years ago when the stone tools were made by the early man in the Sohan Valley in the Potwar basin near Rawalpindi in Pakistan. The stone cultures were mainly evolved by the hominid populations in the Pleistocene epoch. Their basic features were determined by the availability of the stone type. The stone cultures can be broadly classified into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic cultures.
¨ Paleolithic cultures may be further divided into lower Paleolithic, middle Paleolithic and upper Paleolithic. The main time zone of the lower Paleolithic falls between 7,30,000 and 1,30,000 years ago. It was evolved mainly by the Homo erectus population and developed mainly by the Homo erectus population and developed on the quartz stone. The main invented the use of fire. The hunting and food-gathering was the main economic activity. The stone tool types were crude in nature.
¨ The middle Paleolithic cultures and associated with the light-weight stone tools and artifacts developed on the hard stone material such as chalcedony, agate, jasper etc. This was mainly the work of the Neanderthal man. The time zone was 1,30,000 to 30,000 years ago. The main culture types were Newasa, Didwana, etc.
¨ The upper Paleolithic Cultures have been associate with the use of backed blades of various shapes. The cultures were mainly the work of the modern man and developed between 30,000 to 10,000 years ago.
¨ The Mesolithic or middle Stone age culture are mainly based on the micro sized stone tools popularly known as microliths which have been found from various places such as Mahadaha, Sarai, Nahar Rai, Chopani Mando, Bhimbetaka, Adamgarh, Bagor. The man in this phase was the hunter and food gatherer. Bow and arrow and spear were the main equipments from Mahadaha. The burial practices have been found.
¨ Neolithic or New-stone age cultures were base do the polished and better shaped and symmetrical stones tools. In this age the people began the early farming. The domestication of the animal and cattle was also taken up. The people lived in the houses and used the hand-made pottery. The Neolithic cultures have been found form various sites such as Mehrgarh, Burzahom, Chirand, Deojali, Hading, Mahagara, Koldihwa, Brahmagiri, Maski, Magarjunkonda and other places. The earliest Neolithic have been evident form Mehrgarh beginning with 7000 BC and ending in 4000 BC. Potters wheel was introduced about 4000 BC in Mehrgarh.
¨ The Indus Valley civilization or Harapan Civilization have been found spread over a very large area of about 12.5 lac sq.km. in the north west parts including some areas of Pakistan and India. The civilization is known for its urban figures, well-aligned cities, fortifications use of burnt bricks, drainages system, use of weight, measures, seals, religious practices such as the worship of Pasupati and Mother Goddess. The civilization developed over a broad basis prepared by the agriculture. Wheat, barley, and cotton were the principal crops. Rice has been found aonly form Lothal and Rangpur. The ploughed fields have been found form Kalibangan and Shortunghai. The plough models are found from Banawali, Rakhigarh and Cholistan. The system of dams and stone water tanks from Dholavira.
¨ The Harappans used the techniques. They prepared the good quality bricks pots, copper and bronze objects, ornaments, etc. The bronze chariot has been found from Daimabad. The bronze image of a dancing girl has been found from Mohenjodaro. The stone dancing girl found from Harappa. The priests head found from Mohenjodaro. The granaries have been reported from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The evidence of a public bath from Mohenjodaro. The scales from Measurement have been found from various places. Black and Red ware was the typical pottery. Harappans worshipped the snakes, papal tree, unicorn, bull, fertility objects. The burial practices were well developed. Cemetry R-37 was the typical practice. But cemetery-H has been reported from Harappa. The wooden coffin has been reported from Harappa.
¨ The double burial reported from Lothal. The Megalith grave has been reported from Dholavira. The sign-board inscription reported from Dholavira. Harappan script is pictographic. It has not been deciphered. The inscriptions are very short.
¨ Harappan civilization was a copper-bronze civilization. Its sites have been reported from Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jammu, Chandigarh. From Pakistan the sites have been reported from Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan. The mature civilization occupied the time zone from 2500 BC to 2000 BC. After this their started the phase of decline going upto 1700 BC. Popularly known as the late Harappa, it was the phase of ruralization or deurbanization of the Harappan tradition.
¨ The decline of the Harappan civilization took place as a result of various factors such as the wars and conflicts, onset or aridity and soil salinity, change in the course of rivers etc.
THE VEDIC AGE (1500 BC TO 600 BC)
¨ The accepted views is that the Aryan speakers arrived from the Central Asia. They left the brethren Indo-Iranians behind the Iran. The Aryan speakers migrated in a number of bands. The history of the Aryans is studied in two phases. The Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic Age.
¨ The early Vedic Age is known mainly from the Rig Veda, which is divided into 10 Mandalas or 10 books. The Mandalas were composed by the different sages. The expert priest of Rig Veda was called as Hota. The Rig Vedic culture was mainly pastoral. Cattle was the main form the wealth. The wars were fought for the cattle. There were various Janas which used to fight among themselves. Rajan was the head of the Jana. Rajan was supported by Purohit, Gramani and Senani.
¨ The popular lies such as Sabha and Samiti had some control over the Rajan or King. The Bali was the main contribution, the source of income of the Rajan. The women were given education. Some women scholars such as Apala composed some portions of Vedas. The cultures of Punjab in this period did not use iron. They cultivated only one grain Yava. Copper was the metal in common use. Crafts and skills were not much developed. They used the pottery types such as Ochre-coloured pottery.
¨ Their religion was based on the prayers to different gods such as Indra, Agni, Varun, Rudra, Vayu, Surya, Mitra, Pusan as also some goddesses such as Usha, Aditi, Prithvi, Aranyani etc. The mode of worship was simple. Their religion had close connection with the social, religious and political context.
¨ The Later Vedic Culture developed in the time bracket of 1000 BC to 600 BC. In this age other three Vedas composed. Yajur Veda which is associated with Yajna is written in prose and verse both. The Sam Veda is the book of song or music. The Atharva Veda is closely associated with the agriculture, crafts, cattle rearing etc. It contains the magical formulae and various crops and crop-practices. The later Vedic age is also known for the composition of the prose commentaries known as the Brahmanas. They are the main source of information of this age. Aitareya and Shatpath are the main brahmanas. Aranyaka and Upanishads were composed in the end of this period. Upanishads are the books on philosophy. They contain the information about soul, God, creation, salvation etc. The contain the basic systems of the Indian philosophy.
¨ In Later Vedic Age (1000 - 600 BC) the Aryan speakers spread their cultural elements over the areas of UP. and Bihar upto Bengal. Ganga Valley came to be fully occupied. The concept of Aryavarta appeared. Iron was discovered. Agriculture became the main occupation. Crop practices and techniques improved. All this led to the production of the surplus. Crafts made much progress. As a result various Janpadas developed in the North India. Kuru, Panchala, Magadha, Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Gandhar were the main Janpadas. King or Rajan became more powerful. The popular bodies Sabha and Samiti lost their power and position. The political system grew in complexity. Various complex religious practices developed. The king and the priests acquired more importance. The four fold varna-system emerged with all the important features. The caste and untouchability also appeared. The famous women scholars of this period were Gargi and Maitreyi. King Janak was a philosopher king, who was the ruler of Mithila. Kuru and Panchala Janpadas dominated the politics. The war of Mahabharata took place around 900 BC. PWG was the main pottery type. It is found along with the iron. The important pgw and iron-tool centers are Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Bhagwanpura etc.
THE PRE MAURYAN AGE (600 TO 400 BC)
¨ This was the age of the Mahajanpada or territorial Kingdoms spread all over the North India. In this age agricultural expansion increased. The craft specialization also increased in variety. The craftsmen organized themselves in the form of guild or Sreni. The north-black polished ware was produced. The script appeared. The trade increased all over the north India. The trading networks connected the urban centres which appeared in the Ganga valley. The mud-bricks were used in the construction. The famous urban centres were Rajgriha, Kaushambi, Pataliputra, Vaishali, Kasi, Hastinapur, Indraprastha, Mathura, Ujjain etc.
¨ The society grew in complexity along with various craft groups and occupations groups. Caste system became more rigid. Untouchable groups appeared. Their position became even more miserable. Women came under various restrictions. The earliest portions of Mahabharata and Ramayana were composed in this period. The practice of Sati is known for the first time. The education and learning was improved. Panini composed the Grammer book. The Sanskrit form became more complex.
¨ There was a great deal of progress in the growth of ideas. Many scholars and philosophers propagated their ideas among the people. Lord Buddha and Mahavir were the most prominent.
¨ Lord Mahavir (599 BC to 527 BC) was a prince of Vaishali. He left his kingdom and family and became a monk. After wonderings for nearly 13 years he acquired the Supreme knowledge at a place Jambhiya Gram. He was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism. He belived in the theory of karma. He taught his disciples the five great vows such as Ahimsa, Satya, Asteya, Aparigriha and Brahmcharya. The path suggested by Mahavira was based on ethical principles. He entrolled the people irrespective of their castes or statue. He organized the order of the disciples in which women were given an important position Mahavir died at a place known as Pavapuri. Mahavir was a great scholar, a versatile genous, had the good knowledge of various disciplines such as Medicines, Astronomy, Mathematics, logic and polity.
¨ The Buddhism was founded by Lord Budha. His earlier name was Siddharth. Born at Lunbini, Siddharth was married by his father Suddhodhan, who wanted him to get involved in the worldly things. But this approach failed in stopping Lord Buddha from becoming a wandering monk. He left his family and learnt various yogic practices. He acquired the enlightenment or Bodhi at a place known as Bodhi Gaya. Lord Budha preached this knowledge to the people irrespective of the caste or status. He believed in the theory of Karma or Action. The goal in the world should be the balance of mind, which eans the end of misery. He organized an order or Samgha on the republican pattern. He died at a place Kusinagar (situated in UP) in 483 BC. Lord Buddha was popularly known as Sakya-muni as he was born in the Sakya clan.
¨ Invasion of the Persian emperor Darius II took place on the north-west India. He extended his empire over the north western India from where the Persians acquired the revenues of 320 talent gold. It all happened in the end of the sixth C.B.C.
¨ The invasion of the Macedonian emperor Alexander on India took place in 327-325 BC over the areas of Punjab. Many kings of Punjab such as Porus were defeated by him. King Ambhi of Taxila submitted before him. Various republican states were defeated by him one by one. The political order of Punjab collapsed before him. His soldiers declined to proceed further east. As a result, Alexander had no option but to retreat from the River Beas river.
¨ The soldiers were fed up of prolonged fighting. Besides, they were also afraid of the military strength of the Nanda empire which had a large army and immense resources.
¨ The Alexander’s invasion left various lessons. It created the political vacuum in Punjab, that benefited the task of Chandra Gupta Maurya who laid the foundation of his dynasty in 322 BC. Alexander’s invasion also led to the opening of a number of trade routes to the west Asia. A number Greeks settled in the north-West India.
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