Administrative Thinkers …

Elton Mayo

· Studies on industrial psychology are profound

· One of the pioneers of Human Relations Approach

· His work laid foundations for later works in highlighting the importance of “communications between the workers and the management”.

Influence: Psychologists Pierre Janet and Sigmund Freud

Major Contribution: Clinical Approach – focussing on physiological, psychological and economic aspects

Textile Mill, Experiment @ Philadelphia:

· Mill was considered as model organisation

· High employee/labour turnover in the mule-spinning dept.

Ø Single employee – 10 to 14 machines

Ø No communication between labourers – high noise

Ø Fatigued employees could not enjoy their social evenings after work

Mayo studied the physical, social and psychological angles

Rest periods given – symptoms of melancholy disappeared

New bonus scheme - Productivity increased

Labour turnover plummeted

Social interaction was encouraged - morale improved

Implications on Management Field:

Challenged the assumptions of “Rabble Hypothesis” (which assumes ‘mankind as a horde of unorganised individuals actuated by self- interest’)

Summary of TEXTILE MILL EXPERIMENT:

Ø Spinning produces postural fatigue and induces pessimistic reverie

Ø Rest pauses relieve postural fatigue and enhance productivity

Ø Rest pauses are effective when they are regular

Ø Life of worker outside the mill has been enriched (able to enjoy their social evenings)

“Monotony per se is not the problem but repetitive work done under conditions of isolation lead to abnormal preoccupations”.

Hawthorne Studies: the Great Illumination Experiment (1924-27)

Western Electricity Company, Chicago

National Research Council of National Academy of Science

Objective: to identify precisely the relationship between illumination and the efficiency of the worker

Factors tested: result - high rise in output (mission failure – original intention of finding ‘best illumination’)

Ø Illumination

Ø Room temperature

Ø Humidity

Ø Wage payments

Ø Rest periods

Ø Duration of working hours

Ø Refreshments

Supposed reasons for such behaviour:

Ø Interest shown by the research team in the workers

Ø Wage incentive plan that was retained while other privileges are taken off

Certain hypotheses of the experiment were negated – reasons

1. Material conditions boosted – even after withdrawal productivity increased

2. Rest periods removed fatigue, hence higher productivity – output increased even after withdrawal of privileges

3. Monotony was reduced, so boost in output – it is concerned with state of mind and not with working conditions

4. Individual payment system boosted the output – the groups subjected to changes in wage payments, no change. Concluded that something else that led to greater output

5. Changes in supervisory techniques improved attitudes and output – supervisors were not considered as boss, congenial and friendly relationship thrived among the workers and the supervisors

Conclusions:

Ø Mayo and his team re-discovered Robert Owen, who had advocated more attention to workers against machines

Ø Mayo felt that work satisfaction depends to a large extent on the informal social pattern of the group

o Supervisors’ personal interest in workers yield better results – helps in boosting the morale

· Workers should be given opportunity to “let their steam off” about their needs etc.

“The link between supervision, morale and productivity became the foundation stone of the human relation movement”

These experiments were hailed as the Great Illumination because it had thrown light on the new areas of industrial relations.

Human Attitudes and sentiments (1928-31):

· An opportunity for workers to “let their steam off” can make them feel better even though there may not be material change in the environment.

Findings:

· Workers with the act of collecting info felt elated and had equal status with management.

· Change in the attitude of supervisors as they were closely observed by the researchers

· In the absence of proper appreciation of the feelings and sentiments of the workers it was difficult to understand their real problems

Social Organisation (1931-32): the final phase – Bank Wiring Experiment (focussed on group behaviour in a work situation)

Wages paid on the basis of group performance

Findings:

· Social structure and informal pressures will set right the erring members.

· Groups follow a set of code of conduct to maintain the groups’ solidarity

For e.g.: works too much – rate buster

Works lesser – chesler

Whistle blowers – squealer

Acts officious – inspector

· The logic of efficiency did not go well with the “logic of sentiments” which had become the cornerstone of ‘social system’.

Conclusions:

· Human aspects of the organisation should not be neglected for technical and economic aspects

· In addition to the technical skills, the management should handle human situations, motivate, lead and communicate with workers

· The concept of authority should be based on social skills in securing cooperation rather than expertise.

Significance of Hawthorne Studies:

· Discovering the informal organisation

· Led to

o Realisation and understanding of human factor in work situations

o Importance of adequate communication system, particularly upwards from workers to management

Criticism:

Criticised for not understanding the role of unions in free society

For being anti-union and pro-management

Branded the Hawthorne Researchers as “cow sociologists”

Sweeping conclusions were drawn from a relatively few studies

Carey pointed - Unreliable sample of five or six

o Lack of scientific base

Drucker – lack of awareness of economic dimension

Encouraging workers private lives by employers

No place for conflicts (Daniel Sell mentioned that tensions and conflicts are inevitable in every human situation.

Critics argued that the team displayed a total lack of awareness of larger social and technological systems.

Chester I Barnard

Spiritual father of the social system school

‘The Functions of the Executive’ – classic

Organisation as a System of Human Cooperation:

Barnard defines organisation as a system of consciously coordinated activities.

A system in which the whole is always greater than the sum of its parts and each part is related to the other in a significant way.

Willingness of certain people

To contribute to the organisation

Through communication with each other.

Why an individual should contribute?

o Theory of Contribution – Satisfaction Equilibrium

Proposed inducements – specific and general

· Specific – material inducements

Personal non-material opportunities

Desirable physical working conditions of work

Ideal benefactions like pride of workmanship

· General – associational attractiveness

Adoption of working conditions

Opportunity for the feeling of enlarged participation

Economic incentives are ineffective beyond subsistence levels.

Formal and Informal organisations:

Organisation comes into existence only when there are persons (3 elements in formal organisations)

able to communicate with each other

willing to contribute action

to accomplish a common purpose

Communication is a dynamic process, which translates purpose into action.

Four characteristics of formal organisations:

· Systems

· Depersonalization

· Specialization

· Informal organisations

According to Chester, formal organisations create informal organisations as a means of communication and to protect the individuals from the domination of the formal organisation.

Theory of Authority:

Did not accept the traditional concept

Viewed “acceptance” as the basis of authority

The individuals in the organisation accept authority only when the following four conditions obtain simultaneously:

1. When the communication is understood (intelligible)

2. Consistency with the organisational purpose

3. Compatibility with personal interest

4. Physical and mental ability to comply (not beyond capacity)

How to ensure enduring cooperation from an individual in an organisation? :

Depends on three conditions –

1. When the orders issued are in accordance with the four conditions mentioned above

2. When the orders fall within the “Zone of Indifference” (ZoI).

3. When the group influences the individual resulting in the stability of the ZoI.

Zone of Indifference:

Orders in order of their acceptability fall in 3 categories:

· Those, clearly unacceptable and not obeyed

· Those , on neutral line

· Those, unquestioningly accepted (ZoI)

The ZoI depends on 3 factors –

· Inducements offered

· Burdens and

· Sacrifices made by the individual in the organisation

Fictional Authority:

C Barnard called authority as ‘fictional’. The supervisor assumes that subordinate accepts orders because they want to avoid making issue of such orders and avoid personal subservience or loss of personal status with their colleagues.

Authority 2 types:

Authority of Position

Leadership (due to knowledge and understanding)

CB felt that authority depends on the personal attitudes of the individuals and the system of communication in the organisation.

Responsibility:

He examines the responsibility from the view of morality

Decision Making:

Decisions – personal, (less logical)

Organisational (info based, logical and delegable)

Fear of criticism and tendency not to delegate divisional powers results in executives being burdened with decision making.

The Executive Function:

- Specialized work of maintaining the organisation in operation.

Classification of functions of executive:

1. Formulation of purpose and objectives

a. Formulation and redefining of purpose requires sensitive systems of communication, imagination, experience and interpretation.

2. Maintenance of organisational communication

a. Informal organisations perform means of organisational communication – advantages

i. Communicate unintelligible facts and opinions, suggestions and suspicions that cannot formally pass through the formal channels

ii. Minimise political influence

iii. Promote self-discipline of the group

iv. Makes personal influences possible in the organisation.

3. Securing essential services from individuals

a. Incentives, sanctions, supervision, control, education and training help in attaining services

Leadership:

CB says leadership in organisations is critical to achieve ‘cooperation’

Leader should be realist and should be able to recognise the need for action even when outcomes are not foreseen.

Essential qualities of a Leader:

Ø Vitality and Endurance

Ø Decisiveness

Ø Persuasiveness

Ø Responsibility

Ø Intellectual capacity

CB’s acceptance concept of authority, leadership as a process of fulfilling the purposes of organisation and management by consent have an immense contemporary value and strengthen the democratic spirit in the modern world…

Fundamental Rights–Magna Carta of India

 

Fundamental rights

- ENSHRINED in part III

- Constitutes articles from 12 to 35

- Inspiration from USA ( Bill of Rights)

- Part III is described as MAGNA CARTA of India

- Contains long and comprehensive list of justiciable FR

- More elaborate than anywhere else in the world

MAGNA CARTA: is the Charter of rights issued by King John of England in1215 under pressure from barons.

- First written document on FR of citizens.

FR:

- Meant for promoting the ideal of political democracy

- Prevent the establishment of authoritarian and despotic rule in the country

- Protect the liberties and freedoms of the people against invasion by the state.

In short they aim at establishing – ‘govt. of laws and not of men’

Why they are known as Fundamental? :

- Guaranteed and protected by the Constitution, which is the fundamental law of the land.

- Also bcoz they are essential for ‘all round development (material, intellectual, moral and spiritual) of the individuals.

SEVEN FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS:

1. Right to Equality (art. 14-18)

2. Right to freedom (art. 19-22)

3. Right against exploitation (art. 23-24)

4. Right to freedom of religion (art. 25-28)

5. Cultural and educational rights (art. 29-30)

6. Right to property (art. 31) – repealed by 44^th Amendment Act, 1978; made legal right Art. 300 - A in part XII.

7. Right to constitutional remedies (art. 32)

Features of FR:

1. Some are available to only citizens while others are available to all.

2. They are not absolute but qualified. (State can impose reasonable restrictions). They a strike a balance between liberty and social control.

3. Most of them are available against arbitrary action of state with a few exceptions.

4. Some of them are negative in character. (they impose limitations on state while others confer privileges on persons)

5. Justiciable

6. Defended and guaranteed by the Supreme court

7. They are not sacrosanct or permanent. (can be modified or repealed by constitutional amendment)

8. Can be suspended only in case of National Emergency

9. Their scope of operation is ltd by art. 31 A, 31 B, 31 C

10. Application to members of armed forces, para-military forces, police forces, intelligence agencies and analogous services can be restricted or abrogated by Parliament. (art 33)

11. Application can be restricted during ‘Military Rule or Martial Law’.

12. Most of them are directly enforceable while some are to be enforced on the basis of law made by the Parliament (only) for giving effect to them.

Article 13 – states that any law inconsistent with or in derogation of any of the FR shall be void. It provides for JUDICIAL REVIEW. This power has been conferred on the SC (art. 32) and HCs (art. 226).

Law – under Art. 13connotes:

- Permanent laws enacted by Parliament or State legislatures

- Temporary laws like ordinances by Prez, Gov.s

- Statutory instruments in the nature of delegated legislation like order, bye-law, rule, regulation or notification

- Non-legislative sources like customs or usage having the force of law.

Art. 13 declare - Constitutional law is not a law and hence cannot be challenged.

However, the SC held in the Kesavananda Bharathi case (1973) that a constitutional amendment can be challenged on the ground that it violates a FR that forms the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution.

Category	Consists of	Specific Article dealing with the FR	Exceptions and other associated terms/ rulings/ concepts…
Right to equality (14-18)	Equality before law and equal protection of laws	Art 14
	Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth	Art 15	Creamy layer, 93rd Amendment Act of 2005; central educational institutions act,2006
	Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment	Art 16	Mandal commission, 1979; 76th Amendment Act, 1994- wrt to Tamilnadu
	Abolition of untouchability and prohibition of its practice	Art 17	Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955
	Abolition of titles except military and academic	Art 18	1996 – SC upheld the validity of National Awards
Right to freedom (19-22)	Protection of six rights regarding freedom of: speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence and profession	Art 19	Sec 144 of Cr. PC; Sec 141 of IPC
	Protection in respect of conviction for offences	Art 20
	Protection of life and personal liberty	Art 21
	Right to elementary education	Art 21 A	86th Amendment Act of 2002
	Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases	Art 22
Right against exploitation (23-24)	Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour	Art 23	Immoral Traffic (prevention) Act, 1956; minimum wages act,1948; Contract Labour Act, 1970; Equal Remuneration Act 1976
	Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.	Art 24	Child Labour (prohibition and regulation) Act, 1986; factories act, 1948; mines act, 1952
Right to freedom of religion (25-28)	Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion	Art 25
	Freedom to manage religious affairs	Art 26
	Freedom from payment of taxes for promotion of any religion	Art 27
	Freedom from attending religious instruction or worship in certain educational institutions	Art 28
Cultural and educational rights (29-30)	Protection of language, script and culture of minorities	Art 29
	Rights of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions	Art 30
Right to constitutional remedies (32)	Right to move the SC for the enforcement of FR including writs of i. Habeas corpus ii. Mandamus iii. Prohibition iv. Certiorari v. Quo war-rento	Art 32

Corruption and India

• To aspirants with Public Administration optional: if you’ve read Fred Rigg’s theory about  Prismatic-Sala society, this article will make more sense.
• To others: a good read nonetheless, for essay/ interview fodder.

1. Western World vs India

2. Why India is corrupt?

3. Agrarian vs Modern Society

4. Will India remain corrupt forever?

Western World vs India

• In Western society, too, there is some corruption, but it is only at a very high level, and it ordinarily does not affect the common man.
• In USA, you cannot offer a bribe to a policeman if he catches you violating some traffic rule. If you attempt to do that it will be a second, more serious, offence. Similarly, you cannot bribe an income tax official or other officials there.
• But in India corruption exists at every level, for example, in registering a sale deed, getting mutation in revenue records, getting an FIR registered, getting permission from a municipality to build a house, tax matters, etc.

Why India is corrupt?

• first, corruption is the normal feature of the transitional period when a society (such as India’s) is passing from a feudal, agricultural stage to a modern, industrial stage.
• Second, it is only when the transition is over and the country becomes a fully industrial society, like that in North America or Europe, that things will get relatively stabilised, and corruption will be considerably reduced. This, in my opinion, will take about 15 to 20 years more in India.

Agrarian vs Modern Society

• Feudal, agricultural society is a relatively stable society, with everyone knowing his place, with stable social and ethical values.
• In contrast, when the process of industrialisation begins, things become topsy-turvy. In this transitional period, before the process of industrialisation is complete, two things happen.

1. First, old (feudal) moral values disintegrate, but a new moral code does not come into existence.

2. Second, prices start shooting up [inflation], while incomes are broadly stagnant (or rise much slower than the price rise).

• For both these reasons, corruption becomes rampant.

• To maintain one’s lifestyle, one must supplement one’s regular income, and this is only possible by corruption. Since the old moral code has largely disintegrated there is little check on one’s conscience to prohibit taking bribes.

Will India remain corrupt forever?

• Corruption is inevitable in a transitional society like India in which industrialisation has commenced, but is incomplete.
• Historical facts support this conclusion. For example, there was rampant corruption in England in the 18th and early 19th centuries when industrialisation was going on but was not complete.
• Similarly, in America too there was a lot of corruption in the 19th century when the process of industrialisation was going on.
• It is only when the process of industrialisation is broadly completed that society once again becomes relatively stable and corruption subsides.

Ref

http://mrunal.org/#1

Originally written by Justice Markandey Katju, a former judge of the Supreme Court, is chairman of the Press Council of India
http://www.indianexpress.com/story-print/985116/